In “‘Believe’? Vocoder, digitized female identity and camp,” Kay Dickson explores the utilization of the vocoder in Pop music from 1998 to 2001: focusing specifically on Cher’s 1998 hit song, “Believe.” He briefly mentions the origin of this device, stating that it was “… invented in Germany in 1939 as a means of disguising military voice transmissions.” pp. 333).* In relation to music, the vocoder has been used as a means of synthesizing the voice. The author argues that, although male performers have used in their music, an increasing number of female and homosexual artists are also harnessing the vocoder for creativity or reinvention. Dickson devotes much of the article to discussing the process behind the electronic voice of Cher in “Believe,” as well as her “robotic.” quality He also mentions that, because of this, the vocoder has carried with it negative implications. Some listeners and critics have often dismissed the device (or, rather, its use) as a substitute for talent in the realm of Pop music
Bruno Bossis, on the other hand, views vocal synthesis quite differently. His article “Reflections on the Analysis of Artificial Vocality: Representations, Tools, and Perspectives” concentrates more on how to approach vocal electroacoustic music. He indicates that, while musical aspects can be considered (eg., timbre), thus quickly produces problems in terms of explanation (eg., loss of pitch). Bossis indicates that a better way of comprehending artificial vocality and electronic music involves utilizing various branches of science and mathematics: specifically, in the application of Acoustics and various formulas. He also suggests that vatious tools (eg. the spectrogram) and concepts of Music (eg., Integral Serialism) can serve to glean more information about the overall components and structure of a particular vocal electronic work.
Joseph Auner does not focus analytical approaches in his article on artificial vocality, “‘Sing it for Me’: Posthuman Ventriloquism in Recent Popular Music.” Instead, he is mostly concerned with the perception of computers, robots and cyborgs in relation to Pop culture (mostly movies and music). He frequently refers to Stanley Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) and Steven Spielberg’s A.I.: Artificial Intelligence (2001) to highlight the supposed humanity of the robotic characters HAL and David (The author especially notes the similarities between the child robot David and Pinocchio the puppet, as both of these characters desire to become a real boy.). With regards to music, Auner examines concept albums from the Rock bands Radiohead (Ok Computeer, Kid-A, Exit Human) and Emerson, Lake & Palmer (Brain Salad Surgery). These particular albums explore the paranoia of a technologically-dependent dystopian world (from the view of the 1970s and 1990s), where robots eventually rule over the human race, Deviating slightly from this topic, the author also discusses the album Play (1999) by the Electronic dance DJ Moby. Unlike the other artists discussed, who perceive the future with caution and fear, Auner talks about Moby’s choice of interesting musical sampling choices (eg., indigenous African music) and use of artificial vocality in the song “Porcelain.”
New Zealand composer Miriama Young, by contrast, focuses more on the relationship between vocality and recording technology in “Latent Body—Plastic, Malleable, Inscribed: The Human Voice, the Body and the Sound of its Transformation Through Technology.” She looks at wax cylinders (specifically an 1890 recordin of Florence Nightingale speaking) and vinyl records as means of capturing the human voice in a specific time. By referring to research by Theodor Adorno from the 1930s, Young also examines the separation of the “body” of the performer from the voice in recordings. This, coupled with the tangibility and playback of recordings and image, serves to bolster the “immortality” of the recording artist (in terms of music) and increase their popularity. Young also briefly talks about the problems of applying these concepts to digital music (which is intangible and must be accessed through computers or MP3 players) and examines the reliance on visual elements in music by discussing the fake band Gorillaz. This “group,” is actually one person (Damon Albarn) with animations by Jamie Hewlett, and serves to make fun of musical consumerism.
In relation to sound recording, Thomas Edison did not seek to use his phonograph in terms of music. In his 1878 essay “The Phonograph and Its Future” (pp.527-536), he originally wished to use the machine for the purposes of dictation. The essay itself is written more as a mock interview, where Edison answers questions regarding the function, purpose and reliability of his machine. Although it may seem strange from a contemporary perspective, Edison revered the phonograph for its clarity in capturing the human voice.
* Correction: It has now been disproven that Cher used a vocoder for the song, "Believe." According to Sound On Sound magazine, the song actually uses the Auto Tune pitch-adjusting software program: http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/feb99/articles/tracks661.htm